Studies showed that adequate calcium and vitamin D is vital for bone health, but the importance of calcium and vitamin D in older adults is not clear, while some showed that calcium and Vitamin D supplements help in the reduction of fractures in older people. Experts have raised concerns about a potential effect of a high intake of calcium (with or without vitamin D) from foods and supplements on cardiovascular disease (CVD) outcomes. A meta-analysis of both study- and patient-level data from randomized trials showed that calcium with or without vitamin D supplementation increased the risk for myocardial infarction and stroke Chung et al. (2016). T-score is the results of the bone mineral density (BMD) of a healthy young adult. The 0 score means a BMD is normal. The difference between BMD of a young adult norm is measured in units called the standard deviation (SDs). The more standard deviations below 0, shows negative numbers, the lower your BMD, the higher the risk for fracture. That is to state that T-score between _1 and _2.5 or lower indicates osteoporosis, the greater the negative number, the more severe the osteoporosis National Institute of Health.gov. (n.d.).
Normal | Bone density is within 1 SD (+1 or −1) of the young adult mean. |
Low bone mass | Bone density is between 1 and 2.5 SD below the young adult mean (−1 to −2.5 SD). |
Osteoporosis | Bone density is 2.5 SD or more below the young adult mean (−2.5 SD or lower). |
Severe (established) osteoporosis | Bone density is more than 2.5 SD below the young adult mean, and there have been one or more osteoporotic fractures. |